Skill 13: Determine the tone, purpose, or course

TONE, PURPOSE, OR COURSE

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION
TONE what is the tone of the passage?
PURPOSE what is the author´s purpose in this passage?
COURSE in which course would this reading be assigned?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
TONE there will be clues throughout the passage that the author is showing some emotion rather than just presenting facts.
PURPOSE draw a conclusion about the purpose from the main idea and supporting details.
COURSE draw a conclusion about the course from the topic of the passage and the supporting details.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
TONE 1 skim the passage looking for clues that the author is showing some emotion.
2 choose the answer that identifies the emotion.

PURPOSE 1 study the main idea in the topic sentence and the details used to support the main idea.
2 draw a conclusion about the purpose.

COURSE
1 study the main idea in the topic sentence and the details used to support the main idea.
2 draw a conclusion about the course.

Skill 12: Determine where specific information is found

Sometimes the final question in a reading passage will ask you to determine where in the passage a piece of information is found. the answer choices will list possible locations for that information. the best way to approach this type of question is to study the question to determine the information that you are looking for and then to go the lines listed in the answers and skim for that information.

QUESTIONS ABOUT WHERE IN THE PASSAGE

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

where in the passage..?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER

The answer can be in any of the lines listed in the answers to the question.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- choose a key word or idea in the question.
2.- skim the lines in the passage that are listed in the answers to the question. you should skim for the key word or idea.
3.- choose the answer that contains the line numbers of a restatement of the question.

Skill 11: Use context to determine meanings of simple words

You will sometimes be asked to determine the meaning of a simple word, a word that you see often in everyday English. in this type of question, you should not given the normal, everyday meaning of the word; instead, the TOEFL test wants to know the meaning of the word in this situation.

VOCABULARY QUESTIONS CONTAINING SIMPLE WORDS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION
what is the meaning...?
which of the following is closest in meaning to...?
the word is a simple word, one that you see often in everyday english.

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
the question usually tells you in which line of the passage the word can be found.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
1.- find the word in the passage.
2.- read the sentence that contains the word carefully.
3.- look for context clues to help you understand the meaning
4.- choose the answer that the context indicates.

Skill 10: Use context to determine meanings of difficult words

On the TOEFL test you will sometimes be asked to determine the meaning of a difficult word, a word that you are not expected to know. in this case, the passage will give you a clear indication of what the word mean.

VOCABULARY QUESTIONS CONTAINING DIFFICULT WORDS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

what is the meaning...?
which of the following is closest in meaning to...?
the word is a difficult word, one that you probably do not know.

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
The question usually tells you in which line of the passage the word can be found.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
1.- find the word in the passage.
2.-read the sentence that contains the word carefully.
3.- look for context clues to help you understand the meaning.
4.- choose the answer that the context indicates.

Skill 9: Determine meanings from word parts

When you are asked to determine the meaning of a long word that you do not know in the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test, it is sometimes possible to determine the meaning of the word by studying the word parts.

A SHORT LIST OF WORD PARTS

PART MEANING EXAMPLE
contra against contrast
mal bad malcontent
mis error mistake
sub under subway
dec ten decade
multi many multiple
sol one solo
tri three triple
dic say dictate
domin master dominant
jud judge judgement
mor death mortal
spec see spectador
terr earth territory
ver turn divert
viv live revive

Skill 8: Find definitions from structural clues

When you are asked to determine the meaning of a word in the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test, it is possible 1 that the passage provides information about the meaning of the word and 2 that there are structural clues to tell you that the definition of a word is included in the passage.

STRUCTURAL CLUES

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

What is...?
what is the meaning of...?
what is true about...?

TYPES OF CLUES
punctuation: comma, parentheses, dashes.
restatement: or, that is, in other words, i.e
examples: such as, for example, e.g.

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
Information to help you determine what something means will generally be found after the punctuation clue, the restatement clue, or the example clue.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
1.- find the word in the passage.
2.- locate any structural clues.
3.- read the part of the passage after the structural clue carefully.
4.-eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices.

Skill 7: Answer transition questions correctly

You will sometimes be asked to determine what probably came before the reading passage (in the preceding paragraph) or what probably comes after the reading passage (in the following paragraph). of course, the topic of the preceding or following pragraph is not directly stated, and you must draw a conclusion to determine what is porbably in these paragraphs.

This types of question is a transition question. it asks you to demonstrate that you understand that good writing contains transitions from one paragraph to the next. A paragrph may start out with the idea of the previous paragraph as a way of linking the ideas in the two paragraphs. a paragrah may also end with an idea that will be further developed in the following paragraph.

TRANSITION QUESTIONS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

The paragraph preceding the passage probably...
what is most likely in the paragraph following the passage?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
The answer can generally be found in the first line of the passage for a preceding question. The answer can generally be found in the last line for a following question.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
1.- read the first line for a preceding question.
2.-read the last line for a following question.
3.-draw a conclusion about what comes before or after.
4.- choose the answer that is reflected in the first or last line of the passage.

Skill 6: Answer implied detail questions correctly

You will sometimes be asked to answer a question by drawing a conclusion from a specific detail pr details in the passage. questions of this type contain the words implied, inferred, likely, or probably to let you know that the answer to the question is not directly stated. in this type pf question it is important to understand that you do not have to pull the answer out of thin air. instead , some information will be given in the passage, and you will draw a conclusion from that information.

IMPLIED DETAIL QUESTIONS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

it is implied in the passage that...
it can be inferred from the passage that...
it is most likely that...
what probably happened...?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
The answers to these questions are found in order in the passage.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- choose a key word in the question.
2.- scan the passage for the key word (or a related idea)
3.- carefully read the sentence that contains the key word.
4.- look for an answer that could be true, according to that sentence.

Skill 5: Find pronoun referents

In the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test, you will sometimes be asked to determine which noun a pronoun refers to. In this type of question it is important to understand that a noun is generally used first in a passage, and the pronoun that refers to it comes after. whenever you are asked which noun a pronoun refers to, you should look before the pronoun to find the noun.

PRONOUN REFERENTS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

The pronoun ... in line x refers to which of the following?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER

The line where the pronoun is located is generally given in the question. the noun that the pronoun refers to is generally found before the pronoun.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- Find the pronoun in the passage. (the line where the pronoun can be is generally stated in the question).
2.- look for nouns that come before the pronoun.
3.- read the part of the passage before the prooun carefully.
4.- eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices.

Skill 4: Find UNSTATED details

You will sometimes be asked in the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test to find an asnswer that is not stated or not mentioned or not true in the passage. this type of question really means that three of the answers are stated, mentioned, or true in the passage, while one answer is not. your actual job is to find the three correct answers and then choose the letter of the one remaining answer.
You should note that there are two kinds of answer to this type or question: 1 there are three true answers and one answer that is not discussed in the passage, or 2 there are three true answers and one that is false according to the passage.

UNSTATED DETAIL QUESTIONS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

which of the following is not stated...?
which of the following is not mentioned...?
which of the following is not discussed...?
all of the following are true except...

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER
The answers to these questions are found in order in the passage.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- choose a key word in the question
2.- scan in the appropriate place in the passage for the key word (or related idea).
3.- read the sentence that contains the key word or idea carefully.
4.- look for answers that are definitely true according to the passage. eliminate those answers.
5.- choose the answer that is not true or not discussed in the passage.

Skill 3: Answer stated detail questions correctly

A stated detail question asks about one piece of information in the passage rather than the passage as whole. the answers to these questions are generally given in order in the passage, and the correct answer is often a restatement of what is given in the passage. this means that the correct answer often expresses the same idea as what is written in the passage, but the words are not exactly the same.

STATED DETAIL QUESTIONS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE QUESTION

According to the passage...
it is stated in the passage...
the passage indicates that...
the author mentions that...
which of the following is true...

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER

The answers to these questions are found in order in the passage.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- choose a key word in the question.
2.- skim in the appropriate part of the passage for the ker word or idea.
3.- read the sentence that contains the key word or idea carefully.
4.- look for the answer that restates an idea in the passage.
5.- eliminate the definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices.

Skill 2: Recognize the organization of ideas

In the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test, there will sometimes be questions about the organization of the ideas in a passage. In this types of question, you will be asked to determine how the ideas in one paragraph (or paragraphs) relate to the ideas in another paragraph (or paragraphs).

ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS

HOW TO IDENTIFY THE ANSWER

How is the information in the passage organized?
How is the information in the second paragraph related to the information in the first paragraph?

WHERE TO FIND THE ANSWER

The answer to this type of question can generally be determined by looking at the first sentence of the appropriate paragraphs.

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION

1.- Read the first line of each paragraph.
2.- Look for words that show the relationship between the paragraphs.
3.- Choose the answer that best expresses the relationship.

Skill 1: Answer main idea questions correctly

Almost every reading passage on the TOEFL test will have a question about the main idea od a passage. Such a question may be worded in a variety of ways, you may, for example, be asked to identify the topic, subject, title, primary idea or main idea. These questions are all really asking what primary point the author is trying to get across in the passage. Since TOEFL passages are generally written in a traditionally organized manner, it is not difficult to find the main idea by studying the topic sentence, which is most probably found at the beginning of a paragraph.

MAIN IDEA QUESTIONS

How to identify the question

what is the topic of the passage?
what is the subject of the passage?
what is the main idea of the passage?
what is the authors main point in the passage?
with what is the author primarily concerned?
which of the following would be the best title?

where to find the answer

The answer to this type of question can generally be determined by looking at the first sentence of each paragraph.

How to answer the question

1.- read the first line of each paragraph.
2.- look for a common theme or idea in the first lines.
3.- pass your eyes quickly over the rest of the passage to check that you really have found the topic sentence.
4.-eliminate any definitely wrong answers and choose the best answer from the remaining choices.

Questions about the ideas of the passage

It is very common for reading passages in the reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test to have questions about the overall ideas in the passage. The most common type of question asks about the main idea, topic, title, or subject. Occasionally, there will also be a question about how the information in the passage is organized.

Strategies for the reading comprehension question

1.- Skim the reading passage to determine the main idea an the overall organization of ideas in the passage. you do not need to understand every detail in each passage to answer the questions correctly. it is therefore a waste of time to read the passage with the intent of understanding every single detail before you try to answer the questions.

2.- Look ahead at the questions to determine what types of questions you must answer. each type of questions is answered in a different way.

3.- find the section of the passage that deals with each question. the question-type tells you exactly where to look in the passage to find correct answers.
- for main idea questions, look at the first line of each paragraph.
- for directly and indirectly answered detail questions, choose a key word in the question, and skim for that key word ( or a related idea) in order in the passage.
- for vocabulary questions, the question will tell you where the word is located in the passage.
- for overall review questions, the answers are found anywhere in the passage.

4.- read the part of the passage that contains the answer carefully. the answer will probably be in the same sentence (or one sentence before or after) the key word or idea.

5.- choose the best answer to each question from the four answer choices listed in your test book. you can choose the best answer according to what is given in the appropriate section of the passage, eliminate definitely wrong answers, and mark your best guess on the answer sheet.

The reading comprehension questions

The reading comprehension section of the TOEFL test consists of five reading passages, each followed by a number of reading comprehension and vocabulary questions. Topics of the reading passage are varied. but they are often informational subjects that might be studied in a American university: American history, literature, art, architecture, geology, geography, and astronomy. for example.
Time is definitely a factor in the reading comprehension section. many students who take the TOEFL test note that they are unable to finish all the questions in this section. Therefore you need to make the most efficient use of your time in this section to get the highest score. The following method is the best way of attacking a reading passage to get the most questions correct in a limited correct in a limited amount of time.

General strategies: Reading comprehension

1.- Be familiar with the directions. the directions on every TOEFL test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend time reading the directions carefully when you take the test. you should be completely familiar with the directions before the day of the test.

2.- Do not spend too much time reading the passages. you do not have time to read each reading passage in depth, and it is quite possible to answer the questions correctly without first reading the passages in depth, some students prefer to spend a minute or two on each passage reading for the main idea before starting on the questions. other students prefer to move directly to the questions without reading the passages first.

3.- Do not worry if a reading passage is on a topic that you are unfamiliar with. all of the information that you need to answer the questions is included in the passages. you do not need any background knowledge to answer the questions.

4.- never leave any answers blank on your answer sheet. even if you are unsure of the correct response, you should answer each question. there is no penalty for guessing.

Reading Comprehension

1.- reading comprehension: questions ask you to answer questions about the information given in the reading passages. There will be a variety of questions about each reading passage, including main idea questions, directly answered detail questions, and implied detail questions.

2.-vocabulary: questions ask you to identify the meaning of vocabulary words in the reding passages. To answer these questions, you may have to know the meanings of the words. you can also identify the meaning of some of the words by understanding the context surrounding the words, by using structural clues to identify the meanings of the words, or by breaking down the unknown words into known word parts in order to identify them.

Skill 60: Distingush other, another, and others.

SINGULAR PLURAL

indefinite i have another book. i have other books.
i have another. i have others.

definite i have the other book i have the other books.
i have the other. i have the others.

Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike and dislike

LIKE, ALIKE, UNLIKE, AND DISLIKE

GRAMMAR MEANING USE
like adjective similar as an adjective, like is used before a noun
alike adjective similar as an adjective, alike is used after a linking verb.
like preposition similar both prepositions are followed by objects. they can both be used.
unlike preposition different in many positions, including at the beginning of the sentence.
like verb enjoy both verbs follow subjects
dislike verb not enjoy

Skill 58: Distinguish make and do

Make and do can be confused in English because their meanings are so similar. since the difference between make and do is tested on the TOEFL test, you should learn to distinguish them.

Make often has the idea of creating or construicting. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of make:

She likes to make her own clothes.
would you like to make a cake for dessert?
If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
He was unable to make a response to the threat.

Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of do:

This morning she did all the dishes.
The students are doing the assignments.
The janitors did the work they were assigned.
you can do your laudry at the laundromant.

These are only some of the uses of make and do. Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore difficult to classify.

Skill 57: Recognize when prepositions have been omited

Can you wait me after the game?
I plan attending the meeting.

The first example is incorrect because it is necessary to say wait for me. The second example is incorrect because it is necessary to say plan on attending.

Skill 56: Recognize incorrect prepositions

The game was called on because of train.
I knew i could count in you to do a good job.

The first example should say that the game was called off because of rain. The expression called off means canceled, and that is the meaning that makes sense in this sentence. To call on someone is to visit someone, and this meaning does not make sense in this example. In the second example, it is not correct in English to count in someone. The correct expression is to count on someone.

Skill 55: Distiguish specificn and general ideas

SPECIFIC AND GENERAL IDEAS

ARTICLE MEANING USES

a or an general idea use when there are many, and you do not know which one it is.
use when there are many, and you do not care which one it is.
the specific idea use when it is the only one.
use when there are many, and you know which one it is.

Skill 54: Make articles agree with nouns

AGREEMENT OF ARTICLES WITH NOUNS

You should never use a or an with a plural noun.

Skill 53: Distinguish a and an

A AND AN

A a is used in front of a singular noun with a consonat sound.
AN an is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound.

Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x, or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.

Skill 52: Use articles with singular nouns

ARTICLES WITH SINGULAR NOUNS

A singular noun must have an article (a, an, the) or some other determiner such as my or each. (a plural noun or an uncountable may or may not have an article.)

Problems with articles

Articles are very difficult to learn because there are many rules, many exceptions, and many special cases. It is possible, however, to learn a few rules that will help you to use articles correctly much of the time.

Nouns in English can be either countable or uncontable. If a noun is countable, it must be either singular or plural. In addition to these general types of nouns, there are two types of articles: definite (specific) and indefinite (general).

ARTICLES COUNTABLE COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE
SINGULAR PLURAL NOUNS
NOUNS NOUNS

indefinite a dollar dollars money
(general) an apple apples juice

definite the dollar the dollars the money
(specific) the apple the apples the juice

definite

Skill 51: Use -ed and -ing adjectives correctly

-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES

TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE

-ING active it does the action of the verb .. the happily playing children..
(The children play).
-ED passive it receives the action of the verb ... the frequently played record..
(someone plays the record)

Skill 50: Use predicate adjectives correctly

PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

PREDICATE ADJECTIVES FORMS USED IN FRONT OF NOUN

alike like similar
alive live living
alone lone
afraid frightened
asleep sleeping

A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes.

Skill 49: Recognize -ly adjectives

-LY ADJECTIVES

costly likely daily quartely northerly
early lively hourly weekly easterly
friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly
kindly manly nightly lovely westerly

Skill 48: Position adjectives and adverbs correctly

THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBS

Adjectives A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes. It does not come directly after.

Adverbs An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb and its object.

Skill 47: Use adjectives after linking verbs

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS AFTER VERBS


(subject) + (regular verb) + (adverb)

A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes the verb.

(subject) + (linking verb) + (adjective)

A linking ver is followed by an adjective. The adjective describes teh subject.

(subject) + (linking verb) + (adverb) + (adjective)

It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and an adjective. The adverb describes the adjective and the adjective describes the subject.

linking verbs

appear feel seem
be look smell
become prove taste

Skill 46: Use basic edjectives and adverbs correctly

BASIC USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

adjectives adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.
adverbs adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Problems with adjectives and adverbs

ADJECTIVE ADVERB

recent recently
public publicly
evident evidently

Skill 45: Check pronoun reference for agreement

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

1.- Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to.

2.- You generally check back in the sentence for agreement.

Skill 44: Distinguish possessive adjectives and pronouns

POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS

my mine
your yours
his his
her hers
its
our ours
their theirs

must be accompanied by a noun, cannot be accompanied by a noun.

skill 43: Distinguish subject and object pronouns

SUBJECT OBJECT

i me
you you
he him
she her
it it
we us
they them

skill 42: Distinguish the person from the thing

PERSON OR THING

1.- It is common to confuse a person with a thing in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.
2.- This type of question generally appears near the end of the Written Expression section.

Skill 41: Recognize irregular plurals of nouns

IRREGULAR PLURALS

vowel change man-men foot-feet goose-geese
woman-women tooth-teeth mouse-mice

add-en child-children ox-oxen

same as singular deer-deer salmon-salmon trout-trout
fish-fish sheep-sheep

is-es analysis-analyses diagnosis-diagnoses synthesis-syntheses
axis-axes hypothesis-hypotheses thesis-theses
crisis-crises parenthesis-parentheses

ends in a bacterium-bacteria datum-data criterion-criteria
curriculum-curricula phenomenon-phenomena

us-i alumnus-alumni fungus-fungi stimulus-stimuli
bacillus-bacilli nucleus-nuclei syllabus-syllabi
cactus-cacti radius-radii

Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns

KEY WORDS FOR COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

for countable nouns many number few fewer
for uncountable nouns much amount little less

Skill 39: Use the correct singular or plural noun

KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

for singular nouns each every single one a
for plural nouns both two many several various

Skill 30: Recognize active and passive meanings

When there is no object (with or without by) after a verb, you must look at the meaning of the sentence to determine if the verb should be active or passive. Sentence with an incorrect passive verb and no by + object to tell you that the verb should be passive are the most difficult passive errors to recognize on the TOEFL.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MEANINGS

active The subject does the action of the verb
passive The subject recevies the action of the verb.

Skill 37: Use the correct form of the passive

One way that the passive can be tested on the TOEFL test is simply with an incorrect form of the passive. The following are examples of passive errors that might appear on the TOEFL test:

The portrait was painting by a famous artist.
The project will finished by Tim.

In the first example, the passive is formed incorrectly because the past participle painted should be used rather than the present participle painting. In the second example, the verb be has not been included, and some form of be is necessary for a passive verb. The verb in the second sentence should be will be finished.

THE FORM OF THE PASSIVE

be + past participle (by + object)

skill 36: Use the correct tense with will and would

USING CORRECT TENSES WITH WILL AND WOULD

verb meaning use
will after the present do not use with past
would after the past do not use with present

Note: There is a different modal would that is used to make polite requests. This type of would is often used with the present tense.

I would like to know if you have a pencil that i could borrow.

Skill 35: Use the correct tense with time expressions

USING CORRECT TENSES WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS

past perfect simple past present perfect

by (1920) (two years) ago since (1920)
last (year) lately
in (1920)

Skill 24: Use have and had correctly

USING (HAVE PLUS PAST PARTICIPLE) AND (HAD PLUS PAST PARTICIPLE)

tense form meaning use
present perfect have past participle past up to now not with a past tense
past perfect had past participle before past up to past not with a present tense

Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence

Skill 33: Know when to use past with the present

One verb tense problem that is common both in student writing and on the TOEFL test is the switch from the past tense to the present tense for no particular reason. Often when a sentence has both a past tense and a present tense, the sentence is incorrect.

USING THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT

1.- if you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect.

2.- however, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both past and present together.

3.- if you see the past and present together, you must check the meaning to determine whether or not the sentence is correct.

Skill 32: After will, would, or other modals, use the base form of the verb

Whenever you see a modal, such as will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might or must, you should be sure that the verb that follows it is in its base form.

The boat will leaving at 3:00 should be will leave
The doctor may arrives soon should be may arrive
The students must taken the exam should be must take

VERB FORMS AFTER MODALS

modal plus main form of the verb

Skill 31: After be, use the present participle or the past participle

The verb be in any of its forms (am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being) can be followed by another verb. This verb should be in the present participle or the past participle form.

We are do our homework should be are doing
The homework was do early. should be was done
Tom is take the book should be is taking
The book was take by Tom should be was taken

VERB FORMS AFTER BE

be plus 1.- present participle
2.- past participle

Skill 30: After have, use the past participle

Whenever you see the verb have in any of its forms ( have, has, having, had) be sure that the verb that follows it is in the past participle form.

They had walk to school should be had walked
We have see the show should be have seen
He has took the test should be has taken
Having ate, he went to school should be having eaten
She should have did the work should be should have done

VERB FORMS AFTER HAVE

have plus past participle

Problems with the form of the verb

Base form present present participle past past participle

walk walk (s) walking walked walked
hear hear (s) hearing heard heard
cook cook (s) cooking cooked cooked
sing sing (s) singing sang sung
come come (s) coming came come
begin begin (s) beginning began begun

Skill 29: Use the irregular -er -er structure correctly

An irregular comparative structure that has been appearing frequently on the TOEFL test consists of two parallel comparatives introduced by the.

The harder he tried, the further he fell behind.
The older the children are, the more their parents expect from them.

The first example contains the two parallel comparatives the harder and the further. The second example contains the two parallel comparatives the older and the more.

THE -ER, -ER STRUCTURE

the -er (same structure) the -er (Same structure)
more more

This types of sentence may or may not include a verb.

Skill 28: Use comparatives and superlatives correctly

Another problem with the comparative and superlative on the TOEFL test is that they can be used incorrectly. The comparative and superlative have different uses, and you should understand these different uses to answer such questions correctly. The comparative is used to compare two equal things.

The history class is larger than the math class.
Mary is more intelligent than sue.

In the first example the history class is being compared with the math class. In the second example Mary is being compared with sue.

The superlative is used when there are more than two items to compare and you want to show the one that is the best, the biggest, or in some way the most outstanding.

In the first example the history class is compared with all the other classes in the school, and the history class is larger than each of the other classes. In second example, Mary is compared with all the other students in the class, and Mary is more intelligent than each of the other students.

THE USES OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

The comparative is used to compare two equal things.
The superlative is used to show which one of many is in some way the most outstanding.

Skill 27: Form comparatives and superlatives correctly

The problem with some of the comparative and superlative sentences on the TOEFL test is that the comparative or superlative is formed incorrectly. You should therefore understand how to form the comparative and superlative to answer such questions correctly.

The comparative is formed with either -er or more and than. In the comparative, -er is used with short adjectives such as, tall and more is used with longer adjectives such as beautiful.

Bob is taller than Ron.
Sally is more beautiful than Sharon.

The superlative is formed with the, either -est or most, and sometimes in, of, or a that-clause. In the superlative, -est is used with short adjectives such as tall, and most is used with longer adjectives such as beautiful.

Bob is the tallest man in room.
Sally is the most beautiful of all the woman at the party.
The spider over there is the largest one that i have ever seen.
The faster runner wins the race. (no in, of, or that)

Problems with comparatives and superlatives

Sentences with incorrect comparatives and superlatives can appear on the TOEFL test. It is therefore important for you to know to do the following: (1) form the comparative and superlative correctly. (2) use the comparative and superlative correctly; and (3) use the irregular -er. -er structure that has been appearing frequently on the TOEFL test.

Skill 26: Use parallel structure with comparisons

When you make a comparison, you point out the similarities or differences between two things, and those similarities or differences must be in parallel form. You can recognize a comparison showing how two things are different from the er... than or the more...than.

My school is farther than your school.
To be rich is better than to be poor.
What is written is more easily understood than what is spoken.

A comparison showing how two things are the same might contain as... as or expressions such as the same or similar to.

Their car is as big as a small house.
Renting those apartments costs about the same as leasing them.
The work that I did is similar to the work that you did.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISONS

(same structure) more...than (same structure)
er...than
less....than
as....as
the same...as
similar...to

Skill 25: Use parallel structure with paired conjunctions

The paired conjunctions both... and, either....or, neither...nor, and not only...but also require parallel structures.

I know both where you went and what you did.
Either Mark or Sue has the book.
The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
He is not only an excellent student but also an outstanding athlete.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS

both (same struture) and (same structure)
either or
neither nor
not only but also

Skill 24: Use parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions

The job of the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or) is to join together equal expressions. In the other words, what is on one side of these words must be parallel to what is on the other side. These conjunctions can join nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, or phrases, or subordinate clauses, or main clauses; they just must join together two of the same thing.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

(same structure) and (same structure)
but
or

(same strcuture) (same structure) and (same structure)
but
or

Problems with parallel structure

In good English an attempt should be made to make the language as even and balanced as possible. This balance is called parallel structure. you can achieve parallel structure by making the forms of words as similar as possible. The following is an example of a sentence that is not parallel:

I like to sing and dancing.

The problem is this sentence is not the expression to sing, and the problem is not the word dancing. The expression to sing is correct by itself, and the word dancing is correct by itself. Both of the following sentence are correct:

I like to sing.
I like dancing.

The problem in the incorrect example is that to sing and dancing are joined together in one sentence with and. They are different forms where it is possible to have similar forms; therefore the example is not parallel. It can be corrected in two different ways: we can make the first expression like the second, or we can make the second expression like the first.

I like to sing and to dance.
I like singing and dancing.

There are several situations in which you should be particulary careful of parallel structure. Parallel structure are required in the following situations: 1.- with coordinate conjunctions, such as and, but, or 2.-with paired conjunctions, such as both.... and, either.... or, neither... nor, not only... but also, and 3.- with comparisons.

Skill 23: Make verbs agree after certain words

Certain words in English are always grammatically singular, even though they might have plural meanings.

Everybody are going to the theater.

Even though we understand from this example that a lot of people are going to the theater, everybody is singular and requires a singular verb. The plural verb are going should be changed to the singular verb is going.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER CERTAIN WORDS

These words or expressions are grammatically singular, so they take singular verbs:

anybody everybody nobody somebody each (noun)
anyone everyone no one someone every (noun)
anything everything nothing something

Skill 22: Make inverted verbs agree

When the subject and verb are inverted, it can be difficult to locate them, and it can therefore be a problem to make them agree.

(behind the house) was the bicycles i wanted.
(behind the houses) were the bicycle i wanted.

In the first example it is easy to think that house is the subject, because it comes directly in front of the verb was. house is not the subject, however, because it is object of the preposition behind. The subject of the sentence is bicycles, and the subject bicycles comes after the verb because of the place expression behind the house. Because the subject bicycles is plural, the verb should be changed to the plural were. In the second example the subject bicycle comes after the verb were because of the place expression behind the house. Because the subject bicycle is singular, the verb should be changed to the singular was.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER INVERTED VERBS

question
negative
place v s
condition (no if)
comparison

After question words, negative expressions, place expressions, conditions without if, and comparisons, the verb agrees with the subject, which may be after the verb.

Skill 21: Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity

A particular agreement problem occurs when the subject is an expression of quantity, such as all, most, or some, followed by the preposition of, in this situacion, the subject (all, most, or some). ca be singular or plural, depending on what follows the preposition of.

All (of the book) was interesting.
singular

All (of the books) were interesting.
plural

All (of the information) was interesting.
uncountable

In the example the subject all refers to the singular noun book, so the correct verb is therefore the singular verb was. In the second example the subject all refers to the plural noun books, so the correct verb is the plural verb were. In the third example the subject all refers to the uncountable noun information, so the correct verb is therefore the singular verb as.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT AFTER EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

all
most
some of the object v
half

When an expression of quantity is the subject, the verb agrees with the object.

Skill 20: Make verbs agree after prepositional phases

Sometimes prepositional phrases can come between the subject and the verb. If the object of the preposition is singular and the subject is plural, or if the object of the preposition is plural and the subject is singular, there can be confusion in making the subject and verb agree.

The key (to the doors) are in the drawer.
singular plural

The keys (to the door) is in the drawer.
plural singular

In the first example you might think that doors is the subject because it comes directly in front of the verb are. However, doors is not the subject because it is the object of the preposition to. The subject of the sentence is key, so the verb should be is. In the second example you might think that door is the subject because it comes directly in front of the verb is. you should recognize in this example that door is not the subject because it is the object of the preposition to. Because the subject of the sentence is keys, the verb should be are.

SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

S PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE V

When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb agrees with the subject.

Problems with subject/verb agreement

Subject/verb agreement is simple: if the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb must be singular; if the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb must be plural. An s on a verb usually indicates that a verb is singular, while an s on a noun usually indicates that the noun is plural. (Do not forget irregular plurals of nouns, such as women, children and people).

The boy walks to school.
The boys walk to school.

In the first example the singular subject boy requires a singular verb, walks. In the second example the plural subject boys requires a plural verb, walk.
Although this might seem quite simple, there are a few situations on the TOEFL test when subject/verb agreement can be a little tricky. You should be careful of subject/verb agreement in the following situations:
1.- after prepositional pharses.
2.-after expressions of quantity.
3.-after inverted verbs.
4.- after certain words, such as anybody, everything, no one, something, each, and every.

The written expression questions

Strategies for the written expression questions

1.- First look at underlined word or groups of word. You want to see if you can spot which of the four answer choices is not correct.

2.- If you have been unable to find the error by looking only at the four underlined expressions, then read the complete sentence. Often an underlined expression is incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence.

3.-Never leave any answers blank. Be sure to anwers each questions even if you are unsure of the correct response.

Skill 19: Invert the subject and verb with comparisons

An inverted subject an verb may occur also after a comparison. The inversion of a subject and verb after a comparison is optional, rather than required, and it is a rather formal structure. There have been a number of inverted comparisons on recent TOEFL tests, so you should be familiar with this structure.

My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.

All three of these examples contain the comparison more... than, and all three are correct in English. It is possible to have the noun John alone, as in the first example; it is possible that the comparison is followed by the subject and verb John does, as in the second example; it is also possible that the comparison is followed by the inverted subject and verb does John, as in the third example.

INVERTED SUBJECT AND VERBS WITH COMPARISONS

The subject and verb may invert after a comparison. The following structures are both possible.

s v comparison s v
we were more prepared than the other performers were.


s v comparison v s
we were more prepared than were the other performers.

Skill 18: Invert the subject and verb with conditionals

In certain conditional structures, the subject and verb may also be inverted. This can occur when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, and the conditional connector if is omitted.

If he had taken more time, the result would have been better.
Had he taken more time, the result would have been better.

I would help you if I were in a position to help.
I would help you were I in a position to help.

If you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.
Should you arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.

In each of these examples you can see that when if is included, the subject and verb are in the regular order (if he had taken, if i were, if you should arrive). It is also possible to omit if; in this case, the subject and verb are inverted (had he taken, were i, should you arrive).

INVERTED SUBJECT AND VERBS WITH CONDITIONALS

had should were

When the verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, it is possible to omit if and invert the subject and verb.

(omitted if) v s
were he here, he would help.

it is also possible to keep if. Then the subject and verb are not inverted.

if s v
if he were here, he would help.

Skill 17: Invert the subject and verb with negatives

The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and related expressions. when negative expressions, such as no, not, or never, come at the beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted.

Not once didi i miss a questions.
Never has Mr. Jones taken a vacation.
At no time can the woman talk on the telephone.

In the first example the negative expression not once causes the subject I to come after the helping verb did. In the second example the negative word never causes the subject Mr. Jones to come after the helping verb has. In the last example the negative expression at no time causes the subject woman to come after the after the helping verb can.
Certain words in English, such as hardly, barely, scarcely, and only, act like negatives. If one of these words comes at the beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are also inverted.

Hardly ever does he take time off.
(this means that he almost never takes time off)

Only once did the manager issue overtime paychecks.
(This means that the manager almost never issued overtime paychecks)

In the first example the almost negative expression hardly ever causes the subject he to come after the helping verb does. In the second example the almost negative expression only once causes the subject manager to come after the helping verb did.

When negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb in the middle of a sentence, the subject and verb are also inverted. This happpens often with the negative words neither and mor.

I do not want to go, and neither does Tom.
The secretary is not attending the meeting, nor is her boss.

In the first example the negative neither causes the subject Tom to come after the helping verb does. In the second example the negative nor causes the subject boss to come after the verb is.

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH NEGATIVES

no not never neither nor
barely hardly only rarely scarcely seldom

When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb (at the beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a sentence), the subject and verb are inverted.

negative expression v s
Rarely were they so happy.

Skill 16: Invert the subject and verb with place expressions

After ideas expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in English. This can happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there or nowhere.

here is the book that you lent me.
there are the keys that i thought i lost.
nowhere have i seen such beautiful weather.

In the first example the place word here causes the subject book to come after the verb is, in the second example the place word there causes the subject keys to come after the verb are. in the example the place word nowhere causes the subject i to como after the verb have.

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH PLACE EXPRESSIONS

when a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are inverted.

PLACE NECESSARY V S
in the classroom were some old desks.

when a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra information that is not needed to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.

in the classroom, i studied very hard
PLACE EXTRA A V

Skill 15: Invert the subject andverb with questions words

There is some confusion about when to invert the subject and verb after question words such as what, when, where, why and how. These words can have two very different functions in a sentence. First, they can introduce a questions, and in this case the subject and verb that follow are inverted.

what is the homework?
when can i leave?
where are you going?

Also, these words can join together two clauses, and in this case the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.

i do not know what the homerwork is.
when i can leave, i will take the first train.
do you know where you are going?

In each of these examples there are two clauses joined by a question word. Notice that the subjects and verbs that follow the question words what, when, and where are not inverted in this case.

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH QUESTIONS WORDS

who what when where why how

When the question word introduces a question, the subject and verb are inverted.

what are they?
QUESTION WORD V S

When the question word connects two clauses, the subect and verb that follow are not inverted.

i know what they are
S V QUESTION WORD S V

Sentences with inverted subjects andverbs

Subjects and verbs are inverted in a variety of situations in English. Inverted subjects and verbs occur most often in the information of a question. To form a question with a helping verb (be, have, can, could, will, would, ect.) the subject and helping verb are inverted.

He can go to the movies.
can he go to the movies?

you would tell me the truth.
would you tell me the truth?

she was sick yesterday.
was she sick yesterday?

To form a question when there is no helping verb in the sentence, the helping verb do is used.

He goes to the movies.
Does he go to movies?

you told me the truth.
did you tell me the truth?

Skill 14: Use reduced adverb clauses correctly

Adverb clauses can also appear in a reduced form. In the reduced form, the adverb connector remains, but the subject and be-verb are omitted.

Although HE IS rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

When YOU ARE ready, you can begin your speech.

These two examples may be used in either the complete or reduced form. In the reduced form, the adverb connectors although and when remain; the subjects he and you as well as the be-verb is and are are omitted.

If there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, it is still possible to have a reduced form. When there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is omitted and the main verb is changed into the -ing form.

REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES

with a be-verb in the adverb clause

with no be-verb in the adverb clause

time condition contrast place manner

reduces in ACTIVE after if although
before unless though
since whether
while
when

reduces in PASSIVE once if although where as
until unless though wherever
when whether
whenever

* To reduce an adverb clause, omit the subject and the be-verb from the adverb clause.
* If there is no be-verb, then subject and change the verb to the -ing form.

Skill 13 Use reduced adjectives clauses correctly

Adjective clauses can appear in a reduced form. In the reduced form, the adjective clause connector and the be-verb that directly follow it are omitted.

The woman WHO IS waving to us is the tour guide.

The letter WHICH WAS written last week arrived today.

The pitcher THAT IS on the table is full of iced tea.

Each of these sentences may be used in the complete form or in the reduced form. In the reduced form the connector who, which or that is omitted along with the be-verb is or was.
If there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, it is till possible to have a reduced form. Whe there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, the connector is omitted and the verb is changed into the -ing form.

REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

* To reduce an adjective clause, omit the adjective clause connector/subject and the be-verb.
* If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and change the main verb to the -ing form.
* Only reduce and adjective clause if the connector/subject is directly followed by the verb.
* If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the reduced clause can be moved to the front of the sentence.

Sentences with reduced clauses

It is possible in English for a clause to appear in a complete form or in a reduced form.

My friend should be on the train WHICH IS arriving at the station now.

Although IT WAS not really difficult, the exam took a lot of time.

The first sentence shows and adjective clause in its complete form, which is arriving at the station now, and in its reduced form, although it was not really difficult, and its reduced form, although not really difficult.
The two types of clauses that can reduce in English are: (1) adjective clauses and (2) adverb clauses. It is important to become familiar with these reduced clauses because they appear frequently on the TOEFL test.

Skill 12: Use adjective clause connector/subjects correctly

We will see that in some cases an adjective clause connector is not just a connector; an adjective clause connector; an adjective clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time.

The woman is filling the glass that is on the table.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The glass that is on the table contains milk.

In the first example there are two clauses: woman is the subject of the verb is filling, and that is the subject of the verb is. These two clauses are joined with the connector that. Notice that in this example the word that serves two functions at the same time: it is the subject of the verb is, and it it the connector that joins the two clauses. The adjective clause that is on the table describes the noun glass.
In the second example, there are also two clauses: glass is the subject of the verb contains, and that is the subject of the verb is. In this example that also serves two functions: it is the subject of the verb is, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses. Because that is on the table is an adjective clause describing the noun glass, it directly follows glass.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS


who which that
for people for things for peple or things


She needs a secretary who types fast.
S V ADJECTIVE CONNECTOR/SUBJECT V

A secretary who types fast is invaluable
S ADJECTIVE CONNECTOR/SUBJECT V

Skill 11: Use adjective clause connectors correctly

An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the noun the it describes.

The woman is filling the glass that she put on the table.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The glass that she put on the table contains milk.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

In the first example there are two clauses: woman is the subject of the verb is filling, and she is the subject of the verb put. That is the adjective clause connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that she put on the table describes the noun glass.
In the second example there are also two clauses: glass is the subject of the verb contains, , and she is the subject of the verb put. In this sentence also, that is the adjective clause connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that she put on the table describes the noun glass.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS


whom which that
for people for things for people or things.


I like the book which you recommended
S V ADJECTIVE CONNECTOR S V

The book which you recommended was interesting
S ADJECTIVE CONNECTOR S V V

Skill 10: Use noun clause connector/subjects correctly

We will see that in some cases a noun clause connector is not just a connector; a noun clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time.

I do not know what is in the box.
NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF VERB

We are concerned about who will do the work.
NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

Whoever is coming to the party must bring a gift.
NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT

In the first example there are two clauses: I do not know and what is in the box. These two clauses are joined by the connector what. It is important to understand that in this sentence the word what serves two functions. It is both the subject of the verb is and the conector that joins the two clauses.
In the second example there are two clauses. In the first clause we is the subject of are. In the second clause who is the subject of will do. Who also serves as the connector that joins the two clauses. The noun clause who will do the work functions as the object of the preposition abount.
In the last example there are also two clauses: whoever is the subject of the verb is coming, and the noun clause whoever is coming to the party is the subject of must bring. The word whoever serves two functions in the sentence: It is teh subject of the verb is coming, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses.

NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR SUBJECTS

who what which
whoever whatever whichever

Skill 9: Use noun clause connectors correctly

A noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun; because the noun clause is a noun, it is used in a sentence as either an object of a verb, an object of a preposition, ot the subject of the sentence.

I Know when he will arrive
NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF VERB

I am concerned about when he will arrive.
NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

When he will arrive is not important.
NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT

In the first example there are two clauses, i know and he will arrive, These two clauses are joined with the connector when. When changes the clause he will arrive into a noun clause thet functions as the object of the verb know.
In the second example the two clauses i am concerned and he will arrive are also joined by the connector when. When changes the clause he will arrive into a noun clause that functions as the preposition about.
The third example is more difficult. In this example there are two clause, but they are a little harder to recognize. He will arrive is one of the clauses, and the connector when changes it into a noun clause that functions as the subject of the sentence. The other clause has the clause when he will arrive as its subject and is as its verb.

NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS

what, when, where, why, how whatever, whenever whether, if that

Skill 8: Use other adverbs connectors correctly

Adverb clauses can express the ideas of time and cause, adverb clauses can also express a number of other ideas, such as contrast, condition, manner, and place.

I will leave at 7:00 if i am ready.
Although, I was late, I managed to catch the train.

In each of these examples, there are two clauses that are correctly joined with adverb conectors. In the first sentence the adverb condition connector if comes in the middle of the sentence. In the second sentence the adverb contrast connector although comes at the beginning of the sentence, and a comma (,) is used in the middle of the sentence.

OTHER ADVERBS CONNECTORS

CONDITION CONTRAST MANNER PLACE
if although as where
in case even though in that wherever
provided though
providing while
unless whereas
whether

Bob went to school even though he felt sick
s v adverb connector s v

Even though Bod felt sick he went to school
adverb connector s v s v

NOTE: A comma is often used in the middle of the sentence with a contrast connector.

The smith family arrived at 2:00, while the jones family arrived an hour later.

Skill 7: Use adverbs time and cause connectors correctly

Sentences with adverb clauses have two basic patterns in English, study the clauses and connectors in the following sentences:

I will sign the check before you leave.
Before you leave, I will sign the check.

In each of these examples, there are two clauses: you leave and i will sign the check, and the clause you leave is an adverb time clause because it is introduced with the connector before. In the first example the connector before comes in the middle of the sentence, and no comma (,) is used. In the second example the connector comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle of the sentence.

ADVERB TIME AND CAUSE CONNECTORS

TIME CAUSE
after as soon as once when as now that
as before since whenever because since
as long as by the time until while insasmuch as

Teresa went inside because it was raining
s v adverb connector s v

adverb connector s v s v
Because it was raining Teresa went inside

Skill 6: Use coordinate connectors correctly

When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect the two clauses correctly. one way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so, or yet between the clauses.

Tom is singing, and Paul is dancing.
Tom is tall, but paul is short.
Tom must writte the letter, or paul will do it.
Tom told a joke, so paul laughed.
Tom is tired, yet he is not going to sleep.

In each of these example, there are two clauses that are correctly joined with a coordinate conjunction and, but, or, so, or yet and a comma (,).

COORDINATE CONNECTORS

and but or so yet

She laughed, but she wanted to cry
s v coordinate connectors s v

Sentences with multiple clauses

Many sentences in English have more than one clause. (A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb) Whenever you find a sentence on the TOEFL test with more than one clause, you need to make sure that every subject has a verb and every verb has a subject. Next you need to check that the varios clauses in the sentence are correctly joined. There are various ways to join clauses in English. Certain patterns .

Skill 5: Be careful of past participles.

Past participles can cause confusion in the structure section of the TOEFL test because a past participle can be either an adjetive or a part of a verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be. It often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participles in English.

The family has purchased a television.
VERB
The poem was written by Paul.
VERB

In the first sentence the past participle purchased is part of the verb because it is accompanied by has. In the second sentence the past participle written is part of the verb because it is accompanied by was.
A past participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of be or have.

The television purchased yesterday was expensive.
ADJECTIVE

The poem written by Paul appeared in the magazine.
ADJECTIVE

In the first sentence purchased is an adjective rather than verb because it is not accompanied by a form of be or have (and there is a verb, was, later in the sentence). In the second sentence written is an adjective rather than a verb because it is not accompanied by a form of be or have (and there is a verb, appeared, later in the sentence.)

PAST PARTICIPLE

A past participle often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participles. for many verbs, including -ed verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same and can be easily confused. The -ed form of the verb can be (1) the simple past, (2) the past participle of a verb, or (3) an adjective.

1.- She painted this picture.
2.- She has painted this picture.
3.- The picture painted by Karen is now in a museum.

Skill 4: Be careful of present participles

A present participle is the -ing form of the verb (talking, playing). In the structure section of the TOEFL test a present participle can cause confusion because it can be either a part of the verb or an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is preceded by some form of the verb be.

The man is talking to his friend.
VERB

In this sentence talking is part of the verb because it is accompanied by is.

A present participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.

The man talking to his friend has a beard.
ADJECTIVE

In this sentence talking is an adjective and not part of the verb because it is not accompanied by some form of be. The verb in this sentence is has.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES

A present participle is the -ing form of the verb. The present participle can be (1) part of the verb or (2) an adjective. It is part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.

1.- The boy is standing in the corner.
2.-The boy standing in the corner was naughty.

Skill 3: Be careful of appositives.

Appositives can cause confusion in the structure section of the TOEFL test because an appositive can be mistaken for the subject of a sentece. An appositive is a noun that comes before or after another noun has the same meaning.

Sally, the best student in the class, got an A on the exam.

In this example sally is the subject of the sentence and the best student in the class can easily be recognized as an appositive phrase because of the noun student and because of the commas. The sentence says that sally and the best student in the class are the same person. Note that if you leave out the appositive phrase, the sentence still makes sense (sally got an A on the exam).

Appositives

An appositives is a noun that comes before of after another noun and is generally set off from the noun with commas. If a word is an appositive, it is not the subject. the following appositive structures are both possible in English:

s app v
Tom, a really good mechanic, is fixing the car.
app s v
A really good mechanic, Tom is fixing the car.

Skill 2: Be careful of objects of prepositions.

An object of a preposition is a noun or a pronoun that comes after a preposition, such as in, at, of, to, by, behind, on, and so on, to form a prepositional phrase.

(After his exams) Tom will take a trip (by boat)

This sentence contains two objects of prepositions. Exams is the object of the preposition after and boat is the object of the preposition by.

Objects of prepositions

A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that is called an object of the preposition. If a word is an object of a preposition, it is not the subject.

skill 1: Be sure the sentence has a subject and verb.

Some sentences in English have just one subject and verb, and it is very important for you to find the subject and verb in these sentences. In some sentences it is easy to find the subject and verb. However, certain structures, such as objects of prepositions, appositives, and participles, can cause confusion in locating the subject and verb because each of these structures can look like a subject and verb because each of these structures can look like a subject or verb. The object of the preposition can be mistaken for a subject.

Therefore, you should be able to do the following in sentences with one subject and verb: (1) be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb. (2) Be careful of objects of prepositions and appositives when you are looking for the subject, and (3) be careful of present participles and past participles when you are looking for the verb.

Structure and written expression

The structure questions

Strategies for the structure questions

1.-First study the sentence. Your purpose is to determine what is needed to complete the sentence correctly.

2.- Then study each answer based on how well it completes the sentence. Eliminate answers that do not complete the sentence correctly.

3.-Do not try to eliminate incorrect answers by looking only at the answers. Then incorrect answers are generally correct by themselves. The incorrect answers are generally incorrect only when used to complete the sentence.

4.-Never leave any answers blank. Be sure to answer each question even if you are unsure of the correct response.

5.- Do not spend too much time on the structure questions. Be sure to leave adequate time for the Written expression questions.

skill 27: Listen for answers in order

There are two possible methods to use while you listen to talks in listening part C.

* You can just listen to the talk (and ignore the answers).
* You can follow along with the answers while you listen.

Some students prefer to just listen to the talk while it is being spoken, and if that method works well for you, then that is what you should do. Other students find that they can answer more questions correctly if they read along with the answers while the talk is being given. Because the detail quetions are answered in order, it is possible to read along while you listen to the recording program.

Skill 26: Draw conclusions about who, what, when, where

As you listen to each talk in listening part C, you should be trying to set the situation in your mind (as you did in listening part B). you should be thinking the following thoughts:

Who is talking?
When does the talk probably take place?
Where does the talk probably take place?
What course is the talk concerned with?
What is the source of the information for the talk?

Skill 25: Determine the topic

As you listen to each talk in listening part C, you should be thinking about the topic (subject) or main idea for the talk (as you did in listening part B) Since the first sentence is generally a topic sentence, you should be asking yourself what the topic is while you are listening carefully to the first part of the talk.

Skill 24: Anticipate the questions

It is very helpful to you ability to answer individual questions in listening part C if you can anticipate what the questions will be and listen specifically for the answers to those questions (as you did in listening part B).

Skill 23: Anticipate the topics

It is very helpful to you overall comprehension if you know what topic to expect in listening part C.
you should therefore try to anticipate the topics that you will be hearing (as you did in listening part B). For example, are the talks about American history, or a literature, or some aspect of school life? A helpful strategy is therefore to look briefly at the answers in the test book, before you actually hear talks on the recording, and try to determine the topics of the talks that you will hear.

Strategies for the listening part C questions

1 .- If you have time, preview the answers to listening part C questions. while you are looking at the answers, you should try to do the following:

* Anticipate the topics of the talks you will hear.
* Anticipate the questions for each of the groups of answers.

2.- listen carefully to the first line of the talk. the first line of the talk often contains the main idea, subject, or topic of the talk, and you will often be asked this type of question.

3.- as you listen to the talk, draw conclusion about the situation of the talk: who is talking, where or when the talk takes place, which course this lecture might be given in. you will often be asked to make such inferences about the talk.

4.- as you listen to the talk, follow along with the answers in your test book and try to determine the correct answers. detail questions are generally answered in order in the talk, and the answers often sound the same as what is said on the recording.

5.- you should guess even if you are not sure. never leave any answers blank.

6.- use any remaining time to look ahead at the answers to the questions that follow.

Skill 22: Listen for answers in order

There are two possible methods to use while you listen to a conversation in the listening of the TOEFL test.

* You can just lsiten to the conversation (and ignore the answers)
* You can follow along with answers while you listen.

Some students prefer to just listen to the conversation while it is being spoken, and if that method works well for you, then that is what you should do. Other students find that they can answer more questions correctly if they read along with the answers while the conversation is being spoken. Because the detail questions are answered in order, it is possible to read along while you listen to the conversation in the recording program.

Skill 21: Draw conclusions about Who, What, When, Where

As you listen to each conversation in Listening, you should be trying to set the situation in your mind. You should be thinking the following thoughts:

Who is talking?
When does the conversation probably take place?
Where does the conversation probably take place?
What is the source of information for the conversation?

Skill 20 Determine the topic

You should be thinking about the topic (subject) or main idea for each conversation. since the first one or two sentences generally give the topic, you should be asking yourself what the topic is while you are listening carefully to the first part of the conversation.

Skill 19 Anticipe the questions

If you can anticipate what the questions will be and listen specifically for the answers to those questions.

skill 18 Anticipate the topics

You should therefore try to anticipe the topic you will be hearing. for example, are the conversation about some aspect of the school life, or some type of social issue, or a trip someone is planning?
A helpful strategy is therefore to look briefly at the answers in the test book, before you actually hear the conversations in the recording program, and try to determine the topics of the conversations that you will hear.

Strategies for the listening part B questions

1 If you have time, preview the answers to listening part B questions
Anticipe the topic
Anticipe the questions.

2 Listen carefully to the first line of the conversation.

3 As you listen to the conversation, draw conclusion about the situation of the conversation: who is talking, where the conversation takes place, or when it takes place.

4 As you listen to the conversation, follow along with the answers in your test book and try.

5 You should guess even if you are not sure.

6 Use any remaing time to look ahead at the answers to the questions that follow.

Skill 17 Listen for idioms

Idioms are special expressions in a language that all speakers of the language know these special expressions describe one situation in life but are applied to many different areas of life. Idiom question can be dificult for student because they seem to be describing one situation when they are really describing a different situation.

Skill 16 Listen for two-and three-part verbs

These verbs are expressions that include a verb and one or more particles (surch as in, on or at); the particle changes the meaning of the verb. questions involving two-and three-part verbs can be difficult for students because the addition of the particle changes the meaning of the verb in an idiomatic way.

Skill 15 Listen for untrue conditions

Key information about untrue conditions

POINT

An affirmative condition implies a negative reality.
A negative condition implies an affirmative reality.
A past tense implies a present reality
A past perfect verb implies a past reality
Had can be used without if

EXAMPLE

If she were at home, she could do it.
If she weren´t at home, she could do it.
If had money, i would buy it.
If had had money, i would have bought it.
Had i had money. i would have bought it


MEANING

not at home
at home
do not have money
did not have money
did not have money

Skill 14 Listen for wishes

Key information about wishes

POINT

An affirmative wish implies a negative reality.
A negative wish implies an affirmative reality.

EXAMPLE

I wish i had time to help
I wish i did not have time to help

MEANING

no time to help
time to help

POINT

A past tense verb implies a present reality.
A past perfect tense verb implies a past reality.

EXAMPLE

I wish he were at home
I wish he had been at home

MEANING

is not at home
was not at home

Skill 13 Listen for emphatic expressions of surprise

Expressions of emphatic surprise

Verb

be

Emphatic form

be, with emphasis

Example

Then, he is here!

Meaning

I thought he was not here.

Verb

Modal

Verb

Present tense

Verb

past tense

Verb

perfet tense

Emphatic form

modal, with emphasis

Emphatic form

do (es) with emphasis


Emphatic form

did, with emphasis

Emphatic form

have, with emphasis

Example

Then, you can go!

Example

Then, you go play tennis!


Example

Then, she did read it

Example

Then, he has gone there

Meaning

I thought he was not here

Meaning

I thought you did not play tennis

Meaning

I thought she had not read it

Meaning

I thought he had not gone there

Skill 12: Listen for expressions of uncertainty and suggestion

Expressions of uncertainty and suggestion

Uncertainty

... isn´t it (tag)?
As far as i Know
As far as i Can tell

Suggestion

Why not.....?
Let´s...

Skill 11: Listen for expressions of agreement

Expressions of agreement

Agreement with positive statements

so i do
me, too.
i´ll say!
isn´t it!
you can say that again!

Agreement with negative statements

Neither do i.
i don´t either

Skill 10: Listen for negatives with comparatives.

COMPARATIVES WITH NEGATIVES

Comparative
more
Example
no one is more beautiful than she is
Meaning
She is the most beautiful

Comparative
er
Example
He couldn't be happier.
Meaning
He is extremely happy

Skill 9: Listen for "Almost negative" expressions.

Common "almost negative" expressions

Meaning
almost none
Expression
hardly, barely, scarcely, only.
Example
There is hardly any food in the refrigerator.

Meaning
almost never
Expression
rarely, seldom
Example
He rarely drives to work.